Towards standardized measurement of CO₂ transfer in the CCS chain

The global impact of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions on climate change is undeniable, with carbon dioxide (CO₂) identified as the primary contributor to global warming. Urgent action is required to mitigate global warming by reducing anthropogenic CO₂ emissions to achieve net-zero levels. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) stands as a proven technology to curtail CO₂ emissions from various sources by capturing and sequestering carbon dioxide in geological formations. To address the challenge of deploying CCS on a global scale, it is crucial to accurately quantify the captured, transported, and stored CO₂ since quantification underpins regulations and commercial contracts. However, the lack of standardization in CCS projects and measurement methodologies poses a significant challenge, necessitating a common measurement framework to ensure the transparency and reliability of these efforts. This article provides a comprehensive review, with 230 references, of the latest results and operating conditions for current measurement technologies covering the entire measuring system and not just a single instrument. As such, it is a first of its kind effort at establishing a comprehensive framework for CCS measurement. This article serves as a source of references and as a step toward developing an international documentary standard for the transferred CO₂ measurement. By addressing measurement challenges and providing comprehensive recommendations for future research, it contributes to the ongoing efforts to mitigate global warming through the widespread deployment of CCS technology.